Chin. Geogra. Sci. 2008 18(2)119-12DO:10.1007/s11769-0080190www.springerlink.comVulnerability and Sustainable development Mode of coalCities in Northeast ChinaLI Bo, TONG Cianjur( Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130012, China,2. Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China)Abstract: In this study, by carrying on the spot investigation to the seven coal cities in Northeast China and interview.ing with the local authority and the residents, the authors definite the vulnerability that is closed to exposure, sensitiv-ity and resilience, and set up vulnerability model of coal cities in Northeast China. At the same time, the authorsbroadly illustrate how the components of natural-social-economic system act in the coal area, so as to probe the waysto reduce vulnerability more effectively, such as preferential national policy and so on. Furthermore, the article studiesthe relationship between vulnerability and sustainable development. Vulnerability is a spatio-temporal function of sus-tainable development. The regional sustainable development refrains the spiral ascending of vulnerability. And the re-gional vulnerability and sustainable development appear in turn. Then the article analyzes the natural vulnerability, social vulnerability and economic vulnerability of coal cities in Northeast China. At last, combing vulnerability modeland situation of coal cities in Northeast China, the authors put forward regional technology innovation mode,multi-dimension structure transformation mode, attracting investment mode and recycling economy mode to reduceKeywords: vulnerability; coal city; sustainable development; Northeast China1 Introductioncurrence of extreme physical or natural phenomena,socio-economic phenomena and social-political pheClimate-related catastrophes in China, such as typhoons, nomena affecting a community s capability to avoid andfloods, landslips, coasts, and landslides, as well as recover from extreme phenomena. And from the anglenon-climatic events hold a mirror to the world showing of defining vulnerability, some scientists cited the vul-its continued exposure to destructive natural forces. nerability as"degree"of adverse effectMore importantly, people pay attention to the deeper happened (Timmermann, 1981; Mossunderstanding of underlying social vulnerability and Brooks et al., 2005); some scientists pointed out thateconomic vulnerability that make those natural forces so vulnerability is the"token"which is a country's abilitydevastating. Vulnerability research is such an interdisci- to suffer from damages and disadvantages(Seitz, 1998plinary knowledge domain that there are variable defini- Brooke, 2002; Adger, 2006); and other scientists definedtions for vulnerability in many fields. Natural scientists vulnerability as"loss"(Downing et al, 2001). In thetend to describe it from the aspects of dynamical most recent IPCC Assessment Report, the definition ofmechanism, process and structure, whereas social scien- vulnerability may be extended to the"integrated vul-tists tend to use it in socio-economy system on building nerabilityto anthropogenic climate change(McCarthyresilience of restraint, elusion and adaptation(O'Brien et al, 2001)et al, 2004 ) Human scientists, such as Westgate and Coal city, as a typical resources-dependent city,O'Keefe(1976)defined the vulnerability as the degree forms and develops by local resources, suffering fromto which a community suffers from the risk in the oc- high中國煤化 Tles and containingReceived date: 2007-04-28; accepted date: 2008-03-10CNMHGFoundation item: Under the auspices of Key Program of Natural Science Foundation of China (No 40635030), National Natural Scence Foundation of China(No. 40571041)responding author: TONG Lianjun. E-mail: tongli @neige ac cnLI Bo, TONG Lianjunomplex regional sustainable development (Bao and the natural system, social system and economic system,Fang, 2006), and coal industry occupies the important so it includes many aspects such as structure and functionposition in the urban industrial structure. Apart coming vulnerability(natural vulnerability), disintegration of so-from the instability and sensitivity of intermal structure cial patterns(social vulnerability ), lacks of access to re-of coal cities, vulnerability there predominantly comes sources(economic vulnerability). The natural vulnerabil-from extermal pressure and interference, which make the ity includes volcanic vulnerability, flooding vulnerability,natural-social-economic system irreversible conversion. land sliding vulnerability, tsunami vulnerability, hurricaneBecause coal cities are usually distributed in the vul- vulnerability and so on. The degree of vulnerability duenerable area, the characteristics of ecological vulnerabil- to any kinds of natural hazard partially depends on itsity, internal instability and sensitivity have restricted special social, economic, cultural, and political weakness.their sustainable development. In fact, the contradiction And social vulnerability and economic vulnerability areis mainly embodied on economic vulnerability and so- subjected to natural system. Those are in a complex relacial vulnerability. Coal resources'exploitation leads to tionship system.resources depletion, ecological destruction and even For better understanding the vulnerability frameworkenvironment disasters, such as ground collapse, destruc. of coal cities in Northeast China, it is necessary to maketion of underground water recycle system, water envi- clear of the definition of exposure, sensitivity, and resileronmental pollution, debris flow and so on. The ence which are the key components in this framework.long-time dependence on resources has made coal cities In general, exposure means the degree and extent ofform sole industrial structure which limits the estab- duration, when a system is in contrast with, or subject to,lishment of widespread regional economic relationship, the perturbation. Sensitivity is the degree to which alacks industrial competitive advantages, consequently, system is potentially modified or affected by acauses economic vulnerability. Under the background of bance(Gallopin, 2006). Resilience, as definedeconomic globalization, technological progress and in- Third Assessment Report of the IPCC, is the amount ofdustrial structure upgrading make resources-exploiting change that a system can undergo without changingindustry face extermal competition pressure and the state(McCarthy et al., 2001). In this framework, we canthreat of economic instability and unsustainable devel- understand how the components of vulnerability interactopment. Industry culture, sole employment structure as and influence each other, and suggest some effectivewell as the lack of work skill aggravates the difficulty of measures which can be taken to reduce overall vulner-urban employment and the re-employment, which ability, and we also describe and elucidate the interactcauses urban poverty and weakness, further to create ing components of vulnerability as exposure, sensitivitysocial vulnerability. In addition, production risk be- and resilience(coping/response, impact/response, adcomes potential factor of social vulnerability and eco- justment/adaptation response). We use this frameworknomic vulnerability.to coal cities in northeast China to broadly illustrateCoal cities in Northeast China are in a vulnerability how human vulnerability has been influenced and howsystem, where natural vulnerability, social vulnerability to more effectively reduce vulnerability by improvingand economic vulnerability all exist. In the former years, system components( Fig. 1)coal cities in Northeast China contributed a lot to Chi- 2.1.2 Relationship between regional vulnerabinese economic development and social secure, while sustainable developmentthey are still mining-exhausted cities at present. The The authors analyze the relationship between regionalvulnerability study and sustainable development in those vulnerability and sustainable developme by the defini-cities are necessary and important.tion of vulnerability and the necessity of reducing vul-nerable occurrence to realize the sustainable develop-2 Theories and Methodsment中國煤化工-ip between regional2.1 TheoriesYHCNMHGIopmelent from four2.1.1 Definition of vulnerabilityangles that are social angle, process angle, evolutionIn the authors'opinion, vulnerability is given by coupling angle and function angleVulnerability and Sustainable Development Mode of Coal Cities in Northeast ChinaResilienceExposureBefore resources depletion)cr resountal disasterand rearge disparity between Industrial structurech and poor populatioSimple industry structrueinfrastructureHealthy problemIndustry structuredjustment and adresponseEnvironmental conditionsStablizationVulnerabilitySerious pollutionRecycling economy patternFig. I Vulnerability framework of coal cities in northeast China1) From social angleas progress, fairness, cooperation, and coordinated de-The analysis on the relationship between regional velopment. The vulnerability happens and causes thevulnerability and sustainable development from social instability, uncooperation and loss. If controlled to aangle tries to discover mechanism factor and subsequent degree, it will recover to the condition of sustainablerestoration of vulnerability, at last to carry on the sus- development. So regional vulnerability and sustainabletainable development, instead of traditional research development appear in turn(Fig. 2)on regional economy(2) From process angleFrom process angle, the process of regional sustain-able development is the process to refrain the regionalspiral ascending of vulnerability. High vulnerabilitySustainable developmentBreakdownmust be reduced through the response mechanism. Lowvulnerability or no vulnerability is the real sustainableSudden changeAggravationdevelopment. If vulnerability surthe risk thresh-ld value, regional system will facce a brecontrol of vulnerability must be carried out by a seriesFig 2 Alternated relation between vulnerabilityof mechanisms such as adaptation, adjustment, evasion,and sustainable developmentwhich can not be realized in a short time. While regionalsustainable development can promote those control (4)From function anglemechanisms to play their roles smoothlyThere are four factors in the description of vulnerabil()From evolution angleity: vulnerability system, time scale, system attributelal vulnerability is to weigh one kind ofgional development level. A certain accumulation of vulnerability is the spatio-temporal function of regionalvulnerability will cause the region to develop negatively, sustainable development. First of all, vulnerability iseven cause wide range development fluctuation. If that time function of sustainable development For achievingkind of negative development cannot be withheld and whole sustainable development, in the specific period,even surpass the risk value of vulnerability, the wider some regions possibly permit for the existence of vul-scale of regional development will be in the crisis. In the nerabil中國煤化工 e to solve system'srealization of the ultimate objective of sustainable de- instabilCNMH GIn a certain period,velopment, it is easy to take on the weak sustainable instabilty or the area causes vulnerability, when vuldevelopment, even the non-sustainable development, if nerability accumulates to a certain degree, it can affectsome aspects cannot achieve the perfect conditions such the realization of long-term sustainable developmentLI Bo, TONG Lianjungoal. Second, vulnerability is the spatial function of 3 Case Studysustainable development. In the process of realizingsustainable development, there is possibly a certain de- 3. 1 Study areagree of vulnerability. The difference in abundant degrees There are severen typical coal cities in northeast Chinof resources, natural environment, and location advan- including Jixi, Hegang, Qitaihe, Shuangyashan, Liaoyuan,tage led to unbalanced and unstable regional develop- Fuxin and Fushun(Fig 3), among which the former fourment level. It is helpful for realizing sustainable devel- are in Heilongjiang Province, Liaoyuan is in Jilin Provopment by maintaining reasonable regional vulnerability ince, and the last two cities are in Liaoning Provincewhich does not surpass risk threshold value.Furthermore, Qitaihe City is in the young stage of coalexploration, Shuangyashan is in the middle-aged stage2.2 Methoand other cities are in the old stage. In Fuxin City, theThis research has caried on the spot investigation in the population of excavation industry was 41.4x10-3,ac-seven coal cities in Northeast China and interviewed counting for 24.09% of the total number of employees inwith the local authorities and the residents. The authors 2005; in Fushun City, the population of excavation indus-went to two coal cities in Liaoning Province in March try 26.x10, accounting for.99%; in Liaoyuan City, the2007, one in Jilin Province in april, 2007 and four inpopulation of excavation industry 29.9x10,accountingHeilongjiang Province in June, 2007. In addition, we for 22.85%; and in Jixi City, Hegang City, Shuangyashanalso visited other small coal cities in the three months. City and Qitaihe City, the population of excavation in-Also many data were got from Statistical Bureau ofstry were72610,.856×10,11×103,990×103Liaoning Province, Statistical Bureau of Jilin Province, respectively, accounting for 25. 23%, 35.90%, 74.08%,Statistical Bureau of Heilongjiang Province and statisti- 63.35% respectively(Statistical Bureau of Liaoningcal bureaus of coal cities in Northeast China. By the Province. 2006: Statistical Bureau of Jilin Province, 2006analysis and the reorganization to the all materials, we Statistical Bureau of Heilongjiang Province, 2006).Sinceset up vulnerability model of coal cities in Northeast the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949,vulnerability and regional d. ionship between regional Northeast China has accumulated approximately 50x10%China and analyze the relcoals for the national economic construction(Lu, 2005)s Coal city950100km中國煤化工CNMHGFig 3 Location sketch of study area in Northeast ChinaVulnerability and Sustainable Development Mode of Coal Cities in Northeast China3.2 Vulnerability of coal citiesstructed with the characteristics of integration of coal3. 2. 1 Natural vulnerabilityproduction area and living community. As a result, theyExploiting coal too much causes resources depletion, had lagged infrastructures and imperfect functions,environmental pollution and ecological environment which have restricted economy change to multiplexdestruction. Vulnerability resulting from environmental economic type. Large numbers of laid-off workers causeollution mainly embody in surface water pollution, the high pressure of social employment and bring urbannderground water pollution, atmosphere pollution, in- poverty. For example, there was a population ofdustry solid waste and living trash pollution. Vulnerabil- 780x10 in Fuxin in 2005, of which 127x10 were layity caused by ecological environment damaging mainly offs. Only the bankruptcy of Haizhou Open-pit Coalembody in vegetation destruction, farmland destruction Mining in July had increased 20x10 unemployed peo-and natural disasters. Ecological environment problem ple. The unemployment rate registered by Fuxin Cityis serious. Coal cities have large collapse area and was 6.9%o, 2.8% higher than the average Chinese level,gangue rocky mountain(Yu et al., 2002). In coal cities listing the first place in Liaoning Province. There wasof northeast China. 6x10%t of waste water and 350x10t 156x10 unemployed people in 2006, including 129x10'of coal sludge are produced by washing coal every year, layoffs which accounted for 36.7% of the total numberand atmosphere pollution comes from coal dust in the of workers in the whole city (Wang Hong et al. 2004)coal storage and transport process is serious, at theThe employment problem was extremely serious. En-time smog and dust pollution is more serious in theterprises'loss and in-debt running make society bearcombustion processheavy burdens. Many coal enterprises in coal cities of3. 2. 2 Social vulnerabilityNortheast China have run with loss broadly, especiallUrban function is imperfect. Under the guidance of the enterprises in Liaoning Province(Table D)"living follows production, coal cities were con-Tablel Coal enterprise situation in provinces of Northeast China and whole ChinaLoss-suffering Gross value of industrial Increased value ofTotal asse(x107992532129952812919068153Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China, 20033.2.3 Economic vuinerabilityTable 2 Industry structure of coal cities in NortheasChina in 2005The industrial structure is sole in coal cities, relyingmary industry Secondary industry Tertiary industrythe resources exploitation excessively. For completing(%)national construction targets, coal cities overemphasized Jixi316140.llthe output, which resulted in overexploitation of re- Hegangsources(Table 2). For example, in Fushun, proportion by Tahe49133780Shuangyashan 29.6640.3929.95secondary industry among GDP in 2005 was 54.31%,448which indicates that coal-related industries are very im-Fuxinportant in coal citiesFushun7.3854.3138.32The cost of resources exploitation rises. The state-中國煤化工 f Heilongiang proowned coal enterprises enter the decay period, wheCNMHGproduction capacities get low, and mineral output de- 4 Sustainable Development Modesining cost is Increas-Ing in great extent.Reducing vulnerability is inherently an interdisciplinary124LI Bo, TONG Lianjunproblem, so it requires contribution from expertsstructure promotion means the study on how tofields, i.e. physical scientists, engineers, social scisustainable development. The measure we adoptand humanists all of whom should work on collabora- multi-dimensional structure transformation. whiletively in order to reduce vulnerability. They should strengthening leading industry, it will foster new eco-work together, treating vulnerability as a holistic, com- nomic growth point and develop relevant industries andslex, and nonlinear phenomenon. At present, to reduce substituted industries by increasing mining industryvulnerability of coal cities in Northeast China and de- technology content (Wu, 2005). At the same time, wevelop the sustainable economy, some rational modes are also should positively seek new non-mining substitutionimportant. By the analysis of relationships between re- industry, and should decrease resources dependence andgional vulnerability and regional development, and vul- accelerate industry substitute. It is important to enhancenerability phenomena of coal cities in Northeast China, the cooperation of coal industries, develop related in-the authors propose some useful sustainable develop- dustry and substitution industry, so as to promote posment modestive recycle development4.1 Regional technology innovation mode4.3 Attracting investment modeSociety's bearing heavy burdens is one of manifesta- Imperfect urban function and increasing large numberstions of social vulnerability of coal cities in Northeast of laid-off workers are two characteristics in social vuland the possibility of resources exhausting nerability of coal cities in Northeast China, and regionalmaybe leads to economic vulnerability. In addition, vulnerability and sustainable development appear in turnregional vulnerability is the spatio-temporal function of from evolution angle. The aim of the attracting investregional sustainable development from function angle. ment mode is to promote the system to keep away fromBy carrying on technical innovation of product in the vulnerability and to realize sustainable development.time scale and the experiment in the spatial scale, we This kind of mode is to improve both hard and soft etcan reduce the mining cost effectively, enhance the vironments for foreign investment, to better urban livingproduction efficiency, and reduce the social burdencircumstance and infrastructure construction, to perfectRegional technology innovation mode is to improve service function and enhance service efficiency. Chineseresources utilization rate, conserve resources, strengthen government adopts some encouragement policies andgeological exploration and develop resources potential- support policies to city to attract investments, talentedity by utilizing advanced scientific theory and technol- persons, and technology, also new system and mecha-ogy. During enhancing independent science and tech- nism there are necessarities to pool capital and talents. Itnology innovation ability, it must absorb technology is helpful to arrange labor employment, to increase taxoutside and enhance mineral intensive processing level. revenue, to transform resources processing, and to de-The enterprise must carry on innovation technology, velop successive industry and the substitution industrynd apply innovation knowledge and new method, newcraft, new production workflow and management mode 4.4 Recycling economy modeto improve product quality, develop new product, pro- Ecological environment destruction is serious, and it isvide new service in order to occupy market.vulnerable in the natural system of coal cities in NorthChina. The pr4.2 Multi-dimension structure transformation mode opment is the process to refrain the regional spiral as-The sole industrial structure is one of symbols in eco- cending of vulnerability from process angle, so it is anomic vulnerability of coal cities in Northeast China. problem need to be solved how to realize the coordi-From social angle, the authors discover mechanism fac- nated development of natural-social-economic system.tor and subsequent restoration of vulnerability which中國煤化工 cycling economy towill be benefit for the realization of the sustainable de decrCNMHGd ecological envi-velopment by the analysis on the relationship between ronnstruction.Recycling economy mode is toregional vulnerability and sustainable development. transform the original linear way of resources-productsThen facing this situation, the research of industrial cutoffs-pollutant into recycling economy way of reVulnerability and Sustainable Development Mode of Coal Cities in Northeast China125sources-products-regeneration Simultaneously it carriesmanifests in resources depletion, envion urban environment comprehensive management, andion and ecological environment deimproves urban atmosphere quality and water environ- struction; social vulnerability of coal cities in Northeastment quality, and beautifies environment. It will play an China is shown in imperfect urban function, large num-important role in the sustainable development of coal bers of layoff and unemployment problems; and eco-cities to develop recycling economy, ecological industry, nomic vulnerability of coal cities in Northeast China isand enhance pollution synthesis controlling(Wang embodied in sole industrial structure and rising re-Xugao et alAll of those are utilized as"derived sources exploitation cost. At last, combing vulnerabilityresources"of mining industry such as a large number of framework of coal cities in northeast China and vul-waste stones, waste residues, waste water and waste nerability in study area, this paper puts forward regionalgases produced in the mining process. So, it needs not technology innovation mode, multi-dimension structureonly the change on the use way of derived resources, but transformation mode, attracting investment mode andalso to attract talents, technology, fund and preferential recycling economy mode to reduce vulnerabilitypolicy to develop coexisting and accompanying ore and In further study we should focus on the interactionnonmetal ore resources altogether, to lengthen industry between vulnerability and sustainable development inchain, and to pool industry cluster. It is a new industri- detail The development mode could be pointed out spe-alization pathway of "high technology content, good cifically based on mining cities'different developmenteconomic efficiency, low resources consuming, reduc- stages and vulnerability phenomena, which offers valu-ing environmental pollution and full utilizing human able reference for the reform of resources-dependent city,resources”(Han,2006ecological environment construction and community5 Conclusionsbasis for sustainable development, moreover, providesthe valuable reference to other area of the reform of re-Vulnerability is given by coupling the natural-social- sources cityeconomic system which is closed to the definition ofexposure, sensitivity, and resilience. We set up vulner- Referencesability framework of coal cities in Northeast China, invulnerability and the system's sensitivity, and there are Bao Chao, Fang Chuanglin, 2006. Strategic thoughts and pattemssome internal components of vulnerability. 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